Table 1 Candidate parameters for improved diagnostic and prognostic patient assessment

Infection marker (PCT)

CALC I-gene associated hormokine of bacterial infections; correlates with infection severity and risk for bacteremia; responsive over time; established for antibiotic stewardship in respiratory tract infections and sepsis; moderate prognostic accuracy

[38–46]

Inflammatory markers (CRP, WBC)

Increase in response to inflammation and infection; low specificity and moderate sensitivity; low prognostic accuracy

[47–49]

Organ dysfunction markers (Lactate, coagulation, liver)

For progression of sepsis to severe sepsis with organ dysfunction; lactate is the recommended biomarker for early goal directed resuscitation therapy

[50–52]

Endothelial activation markers (VCAM-1, ICAM-1, E-selectin, PAI-1, sFLT-1, ET-1)

Marker panel correlates with vascular dysfunction, with sepsis severity and sepsis-related mortality; highest markers in septic shock; marker are dynamic over time and drop when patients condition is improving

[51, 53–58]

Vasodilation / infection markers (Pro-adrenomedullin)

CALC V-Gene associated hormokine with high prognostic accuracy in pneumonia and sepsis in the ICU setting; significantly improves pneumonia risk scores (PSI, CURB65) based on OPTIMA II study

[17, 18]

Stress markers (vasopressin precursor [copeptin], cortisol)

High prognostic accuracy in respiratory infections and sepsis; significantly improve previous pneumonia risk scores (PSI, CURB65)

[18, 59, 60]

Cardiac dysfunction markers (Natriuretic peptides: BNP, )

Correlate with cardiac dysfunction / cardiovascular stress; moderate to high prognostic accuracy

[61, 62]

Kidney dysfunction (Urea, creatinine, NGAL)

High correlation with kidney dysfunction and increase in (pre) shock; also correlate with (septic) kidney injury

[63]

Blood cells (red cell distribution width)

Measure of variability of red cells; associated with in-hospital and ICU mortality

[64–66]

Nutrition (Albumin, pre- albumin, vitamin D)

Markers of nutrition have been shown to correlate with the general condition of patients and the risk of needing nursing care.

[67]